Female Aviation Pioneer Amelia Lady Lindy Earhart

Amelia Mary Earhart was born on July 24, 1897 in her grandmothers house in Atchison, Kansas. Amelias grandparents were well-off and Amelia spend much of her early life in their home. Amelias mother, also named Amelia but known simply as Amy was married to Edwin Earhart, who had problems alcohol though he dreamed of creating a stable home for his family. The Earharts also had another daughter, Grace Amelias younger sister. Amelia lived with her grandparents until she was 10-years-old when she went back to live with her mother and father; however, her father still struggled with keeping a job. Because of his problems with work, the Earhart family moved around a lot and Amelia ended up going to many different schools. After graduation, Amelia volunteered to be a nurses aid for the Red Cross and this is where she first came into contact with pilots wounded pilots returning from World War I. Amelia developed a great respect for those pilots. In 1919, Amelia attended Columbia University to study medicine, however, she left Columbia just a year later to be with her parents in California. In 1920, Amelia went to an air show in Long Beach, California that would forever change her life and the world! Amelia went up in a plane and decided then and there after the short ride that she wanted to become a pilot. Amelia worked hard in different jobs to be able to afford flying lessons. She took lessons from another female pilot, Anita Neta Snook. Just a year later, in 1921, AmeliaShow MoreRelatedA Groundbreaking Pilot And Inspirational Figure1521 Words   |  7 Pagesinspirational figure, Amelia Earhart became the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean and set many other records throughout her career. Her disappearance in 1937 during an attempt to revolve the globe devastated admirers across the United States and around the world. Her public career lasted less than a decade starting at 1928 and ending in 1937. She used her fame to promote two causes dear to her: th e advancement of commercial aviation and the advancement of women. Earhart symbolizes the fascination

Development Investment Strategy For Client â€Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Development Investment Strategy For Client? Answer: Development and explanation of the recommended investment strategy for the client The whole research philosophy mainly is in line with the needs of the investors, who concentrate in making investments in the Australian Equity market with sufficient measures. Additionally, the investment strategy even holds a relative characteristic like the aggregate returns in order to recognize the total sufficient stocks for the investment. The whole utilization of the technical analysis is mainly undertaken in the total investment strategy, as it assists in recognizing the precise stocks, which are gives out sufficient returns from 2010 to 2017. In this respect, Chapple and Humphrey (2014) has explained that the investors by taking help of the technical analysis are capable of pointing the pattern of the firm, which could assist in making sufficient decisions with respect to investment. On the other hand, Kogan and Papanikolaou (2013), has debated that technical analysis mainly loses their friction when sufficient assessment is not been undertaken by the investor. The philosophy of investment even addresses the US stocks, as one of the suitable investment strategy. The economic investment after the election of Donald Trump has swiftly increased in client in US, which is seen directly with the rise in the stock market. This could virtually aid the investors to gain increased return from the investment in the economy of US. Thus, the portfolio comprises of 20% of US stocks that are enlisted in Australia. Additionally, investments are directly undertaken on large cap stocks, which are listed on the top 100 stocks in ASX. The utilization of the large caps mainly ascertains liquidity in the stock if there are problems that may rise in the future. Bodie, Kane and Marcus (2014) explained the utilization of high volume stocks mainly permits the firms to rapidly sell their investments if the estimation is not undertaken precisely. Conversely, Sadorsky (2014) explained that the development prospects in low cap stocks are precisely higher, as it has an i ncreased return from the investment. Additionally, in the philosophy of investment even includes hedging, which will permit the portfolio to obey the risk from the Australian capital market. The process of hedging permits the investors to decrease the increasing risk, which is displayed by an investment in both the long and short term. This permits the investors to sufficiently decrease the level of risk from the portfolio and gain increased investment return. Therefore, by making use of the technical analysis, the investors could sufficiently recognize the stocks that could create higher returns from the process of investment. Conversely, substitute strategy could be implemented by the investor like the fundamental evaluation, which could be aiding in recognizing the total financial ability of the firm in giving out the precise returns in the coming future.; Representation and the construction of the recommended investment portfolio The Appendix mainly reveals the constructed investment portfolio, which could be utilized by the investor to raise the overall investment returns. The computed portfolio mainly comprises of all the needs that is displayed by the investor and is in line with all the limitations for constructing the portfolio. Additionally, the portfolio is segmented in five parts namely Australian equities, International investment, hedging, US equity fund and cash. The five parts mainly assists in receiving the overall investment returns. Conversely, the utilization of the section of hedging could gradually permit the investments in the portfolio to be secured from the hostile movement of the capital market. Additionally, the first Appendix sufficiently reveals the investments in the Australian equities, which could permit the investor to undertake investments in the market of Australia. The share of the investment value is mainly limited to 10% of the assigned value of the portfolio of $800,000 to the Australian equity. Thus, the Australian equity stocks were selected that was exploited in constructing the portfolio. Conversely, due to the limitations of the allocation of the capital assets on 80,000 value was permitted for its stocks. In this respect, Barberis, Mukherjee and Wang (2016) explained that the distributed portfolio mainly permits the investors to decrease the risk from the investment and raise their return. The second section is even undertaken in a portfolio consists of US equities that is 10% of the total portfolio value. This mainly reveals that the investments in the US equities is undertaken with the total value of $200,000. It is seen that there is no division or limitation that is levied on investing in the US equities. Thus, 40% of the segmented value is mainly given out to the BetShare SP 5000, while 10% of the value is transferred to 'BetShares US Dollar and 50% is transferred to iShares SP 500. The section of the International investment is undertaken in a portfolio, which consists of 20% of the total value of the portfolio that is $400,000. There are limitations on the total investment that could be undertaken on the shares with international connections and that is why the highest return giver is mainly selected. The next portfolio is looking into the hedging measure, which is mainly undertaken due to the needs given out by the investor. Furthermore, 21% of the overall value of the portfolio is given towards the process of hedging which is $424,725. The process of hedging is mainly undertaken on the SPI 200 futures contract, which is mainly utilized to hedge shares of the Australian share market. This could gradually aid in decreasing the risk that may have an impact on the capability of the portfolio to create sufficient returns from the process of investment. The final section of the portfolio comprises of the cash balance, which requires to be maintained by the investor for conducting the smoothly in a precise manner in various sectors. This part is even sub-divided in to AMP Cash Manager Cash Management Account and Margin Movements of the Hedgers. Thus, the investment in AMP Cash Manager Cash Management Account are undertaken where a 1.50% return is fixed. The management of cash is precisely sufficient as the investors requires to understand the pattern and answer the sufficient decisions with respect to investment, which could hedge their market exposure. Justification and explanation for the various components in the investment portfolio The components that is utilized for constructing the portfolio has mainly permitted the investor to create sufficient returns from their investment. With respect to Appendix 2, returns given out from every portfolio stock is recorded, which assists in recognizing the overall returns that is created from the investment. 1.67% return is generally created from the investment time span of 10/07/2017. The quantified period of time mainly assists in recognizing importance of the overall portfolio that has been generated for the investors. The investors being bullish in nature on the US stocks faces the maximum loss on that investment. The other losses on the investment mainly comes from the procedure of hedging, which was undertaken for the Australian shares. Conversely, after the assessment it is gained that the total portfolio value increased from 2,000,000 to 2,002,790.04 in a short time span of one month. This mainly reveals the viability of the portfolio and the actions that were unde rtaken to sufficiently construct the portfolio generation. Thus, the aspects utilized in the construction of the portfolio is significantly justified. Reference List Barberis, N., Mukherjee, A. and Wang, B., 2016. Prospect theory and stock returns: an empirical test.The Review of Financial Studies,29(11), pp.3068-3107. Belo, F., Lin, X. and Bazdresch, S., 2014. Labor hiring, investment, and stock return predictability in the cross section.Journal of Political Economy,122(1), pp.129-177. Bodie, Z., Kane, A. and Marcus, A.J., 2014.Investments, 10e. McGraw-Hill Education. Chapple, L. and Humphrey, J.E., 2014. Does board gender diversity have a financial impact? Evidence using stock portfolio performance.Journal of Business Ethics,122(4), pp.709-723. DeMiguel, V., Nogales, F.J. and Uppal, R., 2014. Stock return serial dependence and out-of-sample portfolio performance.The Review of Financial Studies,27(4), pp.1031-1073. Goetzmann, W.N., Kim, D., Kumar, A. and Wang, Q., 2014. Weather-induced mood, institutional investors, and stock returns.The Review of Financial Studies,28(1), pp.73-111. Hirshleifer, D., Hsu, P.H. and Li, D., 2013. Innovative efficiency and stock returns.Journal of Financial Economics,107(3), pp.632-654. Kogan, L. and Papanikolaou, D., 2013. Firm characteristics and stock returns: The role of investment-specific shocks.The Review of Financial Studies,26(11), pp.2718-2759. Li, J.C., Long, C. and Chen, X.D., 2015. The returns and risks of investment portfolio in stock market crashes.Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications,427, pp.282-288. Sadorsky, P., 2014. Modeling volatility and correlations between emerging market stock prices and the prices of copper, oil and wheat.Energy Economics,43, pp.72-81.

Research Article Critique Presentation Power Point free essay sample

The research study that you selected in Week Two Develop a 10- to 15-minute presentation in which you address the following points: Strengths and weaknesses of the study Theoretical and methodological limitations Evidence of researcher bias Ethical and legal considerations related to the protection of human subjects Relationship between theory, practice, and research Nurse’s role in implementing and disseminating research How the study provides evidence for evidence-based practice Identify the following for the research study: Quantitative Research Article Critique (pp. 422-446 of the text): Phase 1: Comprehension Phase 2: Comparison Phase 3: Analysis Phase 4: Evaluation Qualitative Research Article Critique (pp443-446 of the text): Use the critical appraisal guidelines Format the presentation as one of the following: Poster presentation in class Microsoft ® PowerPoint ® presentation including detailed speaker’s notes Video of yourself giving the presentation uploaded to an Internet video sharing site such as www. youtube. com Submit the link to your facilitator

What Are the Best Topics of an Argumentative Essay Essays

What Are the Best Topics of an Argumentative Essay Essays What Are the Best Topics of an Argumentative Essay Paper What Are the Best Topics of an Argumentative Essay Paper Essay Topic: Argumentative For most students, the real challenge of their critical thinking skills comes when they write an argumentative essay. It is an academic paper that takes a stand on an issue and uses logic and evidence to convince the readers. We have all used some form of argumentation at one point in our lives. Whether it was asking parents for permission to go somewhere, requesting a promotion at a job. Begging for a second chance with a lost love, we have examined different evidence to determine which approach is the best to make our case for what we want in life. Though they may not have taken a formal style. These strategies of persuasion form the basis of argumentative essays. What are the winning topics of the argumentative essay? An argumentative essay is a type of writing that requires a writer to advocate a position on a theme using evidence from personal experience, literature, or historical examples. Research to support his or her viewpoint; the writer usually uses several different arguments to prove his or her point. When you write an argument, you follow the same process you use when you write an essay. However, because the purpose of an argument is to change the way readers think or to move them to action, you need to use some additional strategies to present your ideas to your audience. Choosing a Perfect Topic for Argumentative Essay As with any type of essay, choosing the right topics of the argumentative essay is crucial. Here are several tips that will help you find the most compelling subject for your academic paper: Pick the topic you care about You should choose a topic that fascinates and tests you, one in which you have an emotional and intellectual stake. It stands to reason that the more you care about a subject, the more enthusiastically you will pursue it. Choose a topic you are familiar with You should also pick the theme that you know something about. The more you understand the topic, the easier it will be to collect the information and evidence you need to write your academic essay. Be open-minded and ready to accept some new information Even though you care about your subject, you should be ready to consider other people’s positions – even those that contradict your own beliefs. If the situation warrants – for example, if the evidence goes against your position – you should be willing to modify your position. If you find that you cannot be open-minded, you should consider choosing another theme. Remember, in order to be persuasive; you will have to prove to the audience that your judgment is fair and that you have examined both the strengths and weaknesses of opposing arguments. You should also consider other factors when choosing topics of the argumentative  essay. And some more Information quantity On the one hand, your theme should be narrow enough so that you can write about it within your page limit. On the other hand, if your subject is too broad, you will not be able to cover it in enough details. Relevance of the theme Also, your theme should be engaging to your readers. Keep in mind that some argumentative essay topics – such as â€Å"The Necessity of Gun Control† or â€Å"The Fairness of the Death Penalty† – have been discussed and written about so often that you may not be able to say anything unique or interesting about them. Instead of relying on an overused subject, choose one that allows you to contribute something to the debate. Accessibility Finally, make sure you have access to the information you will need to develop your theme. Do some preliminary research on your subject. Many times, this survey will enable you to get a sense of your subject and the conflicting opinions that people have about it. If you are unable to find the information you will need to pick another theme – one that you can reasonably discuss. In general, to find the good topics of argumentative essay you should consider several issues. They will have two conflicting points of view or very different conclusions; as you look over a list of themes, choose the one that really sparks your interest. An argumentative essay is usually about a subject on which you can say a lot on both sides. The subjects like Co-education, Family Planning, the System of Education, Changing Fashions, Sport and Student’s Indiscipline fall into the category of the topics of the argumentative essay. Types of Themes of The Argumentative Essay There are three categories of essay subjects, let’s call them A, H, S. Theme type â€Å"A† presents an argument, and you need to explore pros and cons, reasons for and against, while you support only one side. Topic type â€Å"H† represents a hidden argument. These themes usually ask â€Å"To what extent†¦?†, â€Å"In what way†¦?†, â€Å"How has something changed†¦?†. Topic type â€Å"S† presents a situation and you need to explore reasons why it is what it is. Your task is to assume what will happen in the future and suggest solutions to issues if required. The following examples demonstrate the difference between subjects of A, H or S type: A: â€Å"Modern society benefits greatly from computer technology. However, becoming more dependent on computers has its disadvantages. Discuss the treats of computers.† Here we have two sides of the argument, advantages, and disadvantages. H: â€Å"To what extent should the Internet participate in our children’s education?†; what they really ask is whether we should implement the Internet as a learning tool or not. S: â€Å"As a result of changes to the role of women in modern society, men are now the ones suffering from sexual discrimination. Do you agree?†; this subject, as you can see, is the description of the situation and you have to write what you think about it. A List of Top Exceptional Topics of The Argumentative Essay The greatest scientific invention of humanity – the computer. Is cyberfeminism dangerous for the society? To what extent scandals about celebrities’ sexual harassment affect the modern society? Obesity as a time-bomb of the humanity. Social networks as a tool of terrorism. Is human cloning an issue or a solution? St Valentine’s Day as the expression of true feelings, or a beneficial day for commerce. Is it a good idea to get married while being a teenager? Are popular songs still the musical art? A phenomenon of E.L. James’s â€Å"Fifty Shades of Gray.† Influence of gender on learning abilities. Reasons for high crime rates across the USA. Suicide roots among the students. Is the humankind evil or good by its nature? Illegal drug usage as a time-bomb of the humanity. Vegans among us, the fashion trend or real adherence to principles? Elon Musk as a leader of the world. Hope the above-considered tips will help you pick the best topics of the argumentative essay.

Arena Simulation of STR Manufacturing Process Dissertation

Arena Simulation of STR Manufacturing Process - Dissertation Example The present research has identified that Thai Hua Rubber PCL is one of the largest rubber producer and exporter in Thailand. Most of the product is concerning a production of rubber, for example, RSS (Ribbed Smoked sheets), RSS Compound (Ribbed smoked sheets compounds), STR (Standard Thai rubber), Concentrated Latex, ADS (Air Dried Sheets). However, focus product in this research would be STR (Standard Thai rubber) for which we see a manifold increase in demand. The research is aimed to identify measure and analyze the main problems in oven and packaging zone of production flow. The solution of the problem and its further validation by using Arena Simulation is also within the scope of this project. In order to improve the production, data was collected from the company’s existing processes and management information systems. The area of focus was the company’s production and quality control processes. Initially, the company’s existing scenario was simulated by u sing Arena Simulation programming method. Then in-depth analysis was conducted to find out the main problem in the production line and a solution was devised based on lean manufacturing methods. Lean manufacturing is the customer focus approach to deliver or supply what customer demands in the desired form and free of defects and in time. It further aims to reduce all types of wastes encountered during production processes that may impede overall productivity and increase costs. Main tools of lean manufacturing include but are not limited to 5S, TPM, 6 Sigma, and Kaizen. The transformation from a non-lean setup to a lean manufacturing system is critical and requires a systematic approach for this transition to avoid any major breakdown.

Precis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Precis - Essay Example Enhancement of human assisted migration gives the best solution for preventing the extinction of surviving species in our ecosystem. If the climate change report predictions of 2 to 6 degrees Celsius of warming rate for the twenty century were true, then there would be minimal time for the stranded species to shift to better habitats unless there is human intervention. Many consider it scary and risky to carry and bring these outside species into the communities that they can flourish. While others consider it being a much more risk when the species do not adapt to the new habitats they are taken and also claim the impossibility of moving all the species together to their new ecosystem. If the species were to be left to try and adapt the harsh climates it would lead to more of the species getting to extinction which is a more risk than taking them to better places. Townsend Peterson lead a team at the university of Kansas which created a model which predicts that species turnover due to local die offs and new arrivals will exceed 40 percent in many places due to the harsh climate change. The team took a population of 1870 species of insects, birds, and mammals across Mexico and based their arguments on the projections of the climate changes in the year 2055. This team published their model in Nature in order to give people a clear view of the predictions that have already begun in several areas and take the precautions so as to protect the existing species from die offs for instance, the die offs that have withered juniper-pinon woodlands across the American Southwest. The region suffered from drought in 1950s and again starting several years ago (Douglas ,6). Future predictions can be made by the use of models and since the climate models predict increasingly frequent drought in the Southwest, the species there will either die off or migrate. Harsh climatic conditions

Minority Group and Multiculturalism Essay Example for Free

Minority Group and Multiculturalism Essay Ideas about the legal and political accommodation of ethnic diversity — commonly termed â€Å"multiculturalism† — emerged in the West as a vehicle for replacing older forms of ethnic and racial hierarchy with new relations of democratic citizenship. Despite substantial evidence that these policies are making progress toward that goal, a chorus of political leaders has declared them a failure and heralded the death of multiculturalism. This popular master narrative is problematic because it mischaracterizes the nature of the experiments in multiculturalism that have been undertaken, exaggerates the extent to which they have been abandoned, and misidentifies not only the genuine difficulties and limitations they have encountered but the options for addressing these problems. Talk about the retreat from multiculturalism has obscured the fact that a form of multicultural integration remains a live option for Western democracies. This report challenges four powerful myths about multiculturalism. First, it disputes the caricature of multiculturalism as the uncritical celebration of diversity at the expense of addressing grave societal problems such as unemployment and social isolation. Instead it offers an account of multiculturalism as the pursuit of new relations of democratic citizenship, inspired and constrained by human-rights ideals. Second, it contests the idea that multiculturalism has been in wholesale retreat, and offers instead evidence that multiculturalism policies (MCPs) have persisted, and have even grown stronger, over the past ten years. Third, it challenges the idea that multiculturalism has failed, and offers instead evidence that MCPs have had positive effects. Fourth, it disputes the idea that the spread of civic integration policies has displaced multiculturalism or rendered it obsolete. The report instead offers evidence that MCPs are fully consistent with certain forms of civic integration policies, and that indeed the combination of multiculturalism with an â€Å"enabling† form of civic integration is both normatively desirable and empirically effective in at least some cases. To help address these issues, this paper draws upon the Multiculturalism Policy Index. This index 1) identifies eight concrete policy areas where liberal-democratic states — faced with a choice — decided to develop more multicultural forms of citizenship in relation to immigrant groups and 2) measures the extent to which countries have espoused some or all of these policies over time. While there have been some high-profile cases of retreat from MCPs, such as the Netherlands, the general pattern from 1980 to 2010 has been one of modest strengthening. Ironically, some countries that have been vociferous about multiculturalism’s â€Å"failure† (e. g. , Germany) have not actually practiced an active multicultural strategy. Talk about the retreat from multiculturalism has obscured the fact that a form of multicultural integration remains a live option for Western democracies. However, not all attempts to adopt new models of multicultural citizenship have taken root or succeeded in achieving their intended effects. There are several factors that can either facilitate or impede the successful implementation of multiculturalism: Multiculturalism: Success, Failure, and the Future 1 MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE Desecuritization of ethnic relations. Multiculturalism works best if relations between the state and minorities are seen as an issue of social policy, not as an issue of state security. If the state perceives immigrants to be a security threat (such as Arabs and Muslims after 9/11), support for multiculturalism will drop and the space for minorities to even voice multicultural claims will diminish. Human rights. Support for multiculturalism rests on the assumption that there is a shared commitment to human rights across ethnic and religious lines. If states perceive certain groups as unable or unwilling to respect human-rights norms, they are unlikely to accord them multicultural rights or resources. Much of the backlash against multiculturalism is fundamentally driven by anxieties about Muslims, in particular, and their perceived unwillingness to embrace liberal-democratic norms. Border control. Multiculturalism is more controversial when citizens fear they lack control over their borders — for instance when countries are faced with large numbers (or unexpected surges) of unauthorized immigrants or asylum seekers — than when citizens feel the borders are secure. Diversity of immigrant groups. Multiculturalism works best when it is genuinely multicultural — that is, when immigrants come from many source countries rather than coming overwhelmingly from just one (which is more likely to lead to polarized relations with the majority). Economic contributions. Support for multiculturalism depends on the perception that immigrants are holding up their end of the bargain and making a good-faith effort to contribute to society — particularly economically. When these facilitating conditions are present, multiculturalism can be seen as a low-risk option, and indeed seems to have worked well in such cases. Multiculturalism tends to lose support in high-risk situations where immigrants are seen as predominantly illegal, as potential carriers of illiberal practices or movements, or as net burdens on the welfare state. However, one could argue that rejecting immigrant multiculturalism under these circumstances is in fact the higher-risk move. It is precisely when immigrants are perceived as illegitimate, illiberal, and burdensome that multiculturalism may be most needed. I. Introduction Ideas about the legal and political accommodation of ethnic diversity have been in a state of flux around the world for the past 40 years. One hears much about the â€Å"rise and fall of multiculturalism. † Indeed, this has become a kind of master narrative, widely invoked by scholars, journalists, and policymakers alike to explain the evolution of contemporary debates about diversity. Although people disagree about what comes after multiculturalism, there is a surprising consensus that we are in a post-multicultural era. This report contends that this master narrative obscures as much as it reveals, and that we need an alternative framework for thinking about the choices we face. Multiculturalism’s successes and failures, as well as its level of public acceptance, have depended on the nature of the issues at stake and the countries involved, and we need to understand these variations if we are to identify a more sustainable model for accommodating diversity. This paper will argue that the master narrative 1) mischaracterizes the nature of the experiments in multiculturalism that have been undertaken, 2) exaggerates the extent to which they have been abandoned, and 3) misidentifies the genuine difficulties and limitations they have encountered and the options for addressing these problems. 2 Multiculturalism: Success, Failure, and the Future MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE Before we can decide whether to celebrate or lament the fall of multiculturalism, we need first to make sure we know what multiculturalism has meant both in theory and in practice, where it has succeeded or failed to meet its objectives, and under what conditions it is likely to thrive in the future. The Rise and Fall of Multiculturalism The master narrative of the â€Å"rise and fall of multiculturalism† helpfully captures important features of our current debates. Yet in some respects it is misleading, and may obscure the real challenges and opportunities we face. In its simplest form, the master narrative goes like this:1 Since the mid-1990s we have seen a backlash and retreat from multiculturalism. From the 1970s to mid-1990s, there was a clear trend across Western democracies toward the increased recognition and accommodation of diversity through a range of multiculturalism policies (MCPs) and minority rights. These policies were endorsed both at the domestic level in some states and by international organizations, and involved a rejection of earlier ideas of unitary and homogeneous nationhood. Since the mid-1990s, however, we have seen a backlash and retreat from multiculturalism, and a reassertion of ideas of nation building, common values and identity, and unitary citizenship — even a call for the â€Å"return of assimilation. † This retreat is partly driven by fears among the majority group that the accommodation of diversity has â€Å"gone too far† and is threatening their way of life. This fear often expresses itself in the rise of nativist and populist right-wing political movements, such as the Danish People’s Party, defending old ideas of â€Å"Denmark for the Danish. † But the retreat also reflects a belief among the center-left that multiculturalism has failed to help the intended beneficiaries — namely, minorities themselves — because it has failed to address the underlying sources of their social, economic, and political exclusion and may have unintentionally contributed to their social isolation. As a result, even the center-left political movements that initially championed multiculturalism, such as the social democratic parties in Europe, have backed 1 For influential academic statements of this â€Å"rise and fall† narrative, claiming that it applies across the Western democracies, see Rogers Brubaker, â€Å"The Return of Assimilation? † Ethnic and Racial Studies 24, no. 4 (2001): 531–48; and Christian Joppke, â€Å"The Retreat of Multiculturalism in the Liberal State: Theory and Policy,† British Journal of Sociology 55, no. 2 (2004): 237–57. There are also many accounts of the â€Å"decline,† â€Å"retreat,† or â€Å"crisis† of multiculturalism in particular countries. For the Netherlands, see Han Entzinger, â€Å"The Rise and Fall of Multiculturalism in the Netherlands,† in Toward Assimilation and Citizenship: Immigrants in Liberal Nation-States, eds. Christian Joppke and Ewa Morawska (London: Palgrave, 2003) and Ruud Koopmans, â€Å"Trade-Offs between Equality and Difference: The Crisis of Dutch Multiculturalism in Cross-National Perspective† (Brief, Danish Institute for International Studies, Copenhagen, December 2006). For Britain, see Randall Hansen, â€Å"Diversity, Integration and the Turn from Multiculturalism in the United Kingdom,† in Belonging? Diversity, Recognition and Shared Citizenship in Canada, eds. Keith G. Banting, Thomas J. Courchene, and F. Leslie Seidle (Montreal: Institute for Research on Public Policy, 2007); Les Back, Michael Keith, Azra Khan, Kalbir Shukra, and John Solomos, â€Å"New Labour’s White Heart: Politics, Multiculturalism and the Return of Assimilation,† Political Quarterly 73, No. 4 (2002): 445–54; Steven Vertovec, â€Å"Towards post-multiculturalism? Changing communities, conditions and contexts of diversity,† International Social Science Journal 61 (2010): 83–95. For Australia, see Ien Ang and John Stratton, â€Å"Multiculturalism in Crisis: The New Politics of Race and National Identity in Australia,† in On Not Speaking Chinese: Living Between Asia and the West, ed. I. Ang (London: Routledge, 2001). For Canada, see Lloyd Wong, Joseph Garcea, and Anna Kirova, An Analysis of the ‘Anti- and Post-Multiculturalism’ Discourses: The Fragmentation Position (Alberta: Prairie Centre for Excellence in Research on Immigration and Integration, 2005), http://pmc.metropolis. Net/Virtual%20Library/FinalReports/Post-multi%20FINAL%20REPORT%20for%20PCERII%20_2_. pdf. For a good overview of the backlash discourse in various countries, see Steven Vertovec and Susan Wessendorf, eds. , The Multiculturalism Backlash: European Discourses, Policies and Practices (London: Routledge, 2010). Multiculturalism: Success, Failure, and the Future 3 MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE away from it and shifted to a discourse that emphasizes â€Å"civic integration,† â€Å"social cohesion,† â€Å"common values,† and â€Å"shared citizenship. †2 The social-democratic discourse of civic integration differs from the radical-right discourse in emphasizing the need to develop a more inclusive national identity and to fight racism and discrimination, but it nonetheless distances itself from the rhetoric and policies of multiculturalism. The term postmulticulturalism has often been invoked to signal this new approach, which seeks to overcome the limits of a naive or misguided multiculturalism while avoiding the oppressive reassertion of homogenizing nationalist ideologies. 3 II. What Is Multiculturalism? A. Misleading Model In much of the post-multiculturalist literature, multiculturalism is characterized as a feel-good celebration of ethnocultural diversity, encouraging citizens to acknowledge and embrace the panoply of customs, traditions, music, and cuisine that exist in a multiethnic society. Yasmin Alibhai-Brown calls this the â€Å"3S† model of multiculturalism in Britain — saris, samosas, and steeldrums. 4. Multiculturalism takes these familiar cultural markers of ethnic groups — clothing, cuisine, and music — and treats them as authentic practices to be preserved by their members and safely consumed by others. Under the banner of multiculturalism they are taught in school, performed in festivals, displayed in media and museums, and so on. This celebratory model of multiculturalism has been the focus of many critiques, including the following: It ignores issues of economic and political inequality. Even if all Britons come to enjoy Jamaican steeldrum music or Indian samosas, this would do nothing to address the real problems facing Caribbean and South Asian communities in Britain — problems of unemployment, poor educational outcomes, residential segregation, poor English language skills, and political marginalization. These economic and political issues cannot be solved simply by celebrating cultural differences. Even with respect to the (legitimate) goal of promoting greater understanding of cultural differences, the focus on celebrating â€Å"authentic† cultural practices that are â€Å"unique† to each group is potentially dangerous. First, not all customs that may be traditionally practiced within a particular group are worthy of being celebrated, or even of being legally tolerated, such as forced marriage. To avoid stirring up controversy, there’s a tendency to choose as the focus of multicultural celebrations safely inoffensive practices — such as cuisine or music — that can be enjoyably consumed by members of the larger society. But this runs the opposite risk 2. For an overview of the attitudes of European social democratic parties to these issues, see Rene Cuperus, Karl Duffek, and Johannes Kandel, eds. , The Challenge of Diversity: European Social Democracy Facing Migration, Integration and Multiculturalism (Innsbruck: Studien Verlag, 2003). For references to â€Å"post-multiculturalism† by progressive intellectuals, who distinguish it from the radical right’s â€Å"antimulticulturalism,† see, regarding the United Kingdom, Yasmin Alibhai-Brown, After Multiculturalism (London: Foreign Policy Centre, 2000), and â€Å"Beyond Multiculturalism,† Canadian Diversity/Diversite Canadienne 3, no. 2 (2004): 51–4; regarding Australia, James Jupp, From White Australia to Woomera: The Story of Australian Immigration, 2nd edition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007); and regarding the United States, Desmond King, The Liberty of Strangers: Making the American Nation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), and David A. Hollinger, Post-ethnic America: Beyond Multiculturalism, revised edition (New York: Basic Books, 2006). Alibhai-Brown, After Multiculturalism. 3 4 4 Multiculturalism: Success, Failure, and the Future MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE of the trivialization or Disneyfication of cultural differences,5 ignoring the real challenges that differences in cultural and religious values can raise. Third, the 3S model of multiculturalism can encourage a conception of groups as hermetically sealed and static, each reproducing its own distinct practices. Multiculturalism may be intended to encourage people to share their customs, but the assumption that each group has its own distinctive customs ignores processes of cultural adaptation, mixing, and melange, as well as emerging cultural commonalities, thereby potentially reinforcing perceptions of minorities as eternally â€Å"other. † This in turn can lead to the strengthening of prejudice and stereotyping, and more generally to the polarization of ethnic relations. Fourth, this model can end up reinforcing power inequalities and cultural restrictions within minority groups. In deciding which traditions are â€Å"authentic,† and how to interpret and display them, the state generally consults the traditional elites within the group — typically older males — while ignoring the way these traditional practices (and traditional elites) are often challenged by internal reformers, who have different views about how, say, a â€Å"good Muslim† should act. It can therefore imprison people in â€Å"cultural scripts† that they are not allowed to question or dispute. According to post-multiculturalists, the growing recognition of these flaws underlies the retreat from multiculturalism and signals the search for new models of citizenship that emphasize 1) political participation and economic opportunities over the symbolic politics of cultural recognition, 2) human rights and individual freedom over respect for cultural traditions, 3) the building of inclusive national identities over the recognition of ancestral cultural identities, and 4) cultural change and cultural mixing over the reification of static cultural differences. This narrative about the rise and fall of 3S multiculturalism will no doubt be familiar to many readers. In my view, however, it is inaccurate. Not only is it a caricature of the reality of multiculturalism as it has developed over the past 40 years in the Western democracies, but it is a distraction from the real issues that we need to face. The 3S model captures something important about natural human tendencies to simplify ethnic differences, and about the logic of global capitalism to sell cosmopolitan cultural products, but it does not capture the nature of post-1960s government MCPs, which have had more complex historical sources and political goals. B. Multiculturalism in Context It is important to put multiculturalism in its historical context. In one sense, it is as old as humanity — different cultures have always found ways of coexisting, and respect for diversity was a familiar feature of many historic empires, such as the Ottoman Empire. But the sort of multiculturalism that is said to have had a â€Å"rise and fall† is a more specific historic phenomenon, emerging first in the Western democracies in the late 1960s. This timing is important, for it helps us situate multiculturalism in relation to larger social transformations of the postwar era. More specifically, multiculturalism is part of a larger human-rights revolution involving ethnic and racial diversity. Prior to World War II, ethnocultural and religious diversity in the West was characterized by a range of illiberal and undemocratic relationships of hierarchy,6 justified by racialist ideologies that explicitly propounded the superiority of some peoples and cultures and their right to rule over others. These ideologies were widely accepted throughout the Western world and underpinned both domestic laws (e. g. , racially biased immigration and citizenship policies) and foreign policies (e. g. , in relation to overseas colonies). 5 6 Neil Bissoondath, Selling Illusions: The Cult of Multiculturalism in Canada. (Toronto: Penguin, 1994). Including relations of conqueror and conquered, colonizer and colonized, master and slave, settler and indigenous, racialized and unmarked, normalized and deviant, orthodox and heretic, civilized and primitive, and ally and enemy. Multiculturalism: Success, Failure, and the Future 5 MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE After World War II, however, the world recoiled against Hitler’s fanatical and murderous use of such ideologies, and the United Nations decisively repudiated them in favor of a new ideology of the equality of races and peoples. And this new assumption of human equality generated a series of political movements designed to contest the lingering presence or enduring effects of older hierarchies. We can distinguish three â€Å"waves† of such movements: 1) the struggle for decolonization, concentrated in the period 1948–65; 2) the struggle against racial segregation and discrimination, initiated and exemplified by the AfricanAmerican civil-rights movement from 1955 to 1965; and 3) the struggle for multiculturalism and minority rights, which emerged in the late 1960s. Multiculturalism is part of a larger human-rights revolution involving ethnic and racial diversity. Each of these movements draws upon the human-rights revolution, and its foundational ideology of the equality of races and peoples, to challenge the legacies of earlier ethnic and racial hierarchies. Indeed, the human-rights revolution plays a double role here, not just as the inspiration for a struggle, but also as a constraint on the permissible goals and means of that struggle. Insofar as historically excluded or stigmatized groups struggle against earlier hierarchies in the name of equality, they too have to renounce their own traditions of exclusion or oppression in the treatment of, say, women, gays, people of mixed race, religious dissenters, and so on. Human rights, and liberal-democratic constitutionalism more generally, provide the overarching framework within which these struggles are debated and addressed. Each of these movements, therefore, can be seen as contributing to a process of democratic â€Å"citizenization† — that is, turning the earlier catalog of hierarchical relations into relationships of liberaldemocratic citizenship. This entails transforming both the vertical relationships between minorities and the state and the horizontal relationships among the members of different groups. In the past, it was often assumed that the only way to engage in this process of citizenization was to impose a single undifferentiated model of citizenship on all individuals. But the ideas and policies of multiculturalism that emerged from the 1960s start from the assumption that this complex history inevitably and appropriately generates group-differentiated ethnopolitical claims. The key to citizenization is not to suppress these differential claims but to filter them through and frame them within the language of human rights, civil liberties, and democratic accountability. And this is what multiculturalist movements have aimed to do. The precise character of the resulting multicultural reforms varies from group to group, as befits the distinctive history that each has faced. They all start from the antidiscrimination principle that underpinned the second wave but go beyond it to challenge other forms of exclusion or stigmatization. In most Western countries, explicit state-sponsored discrimination against ethnic, racial, or religious minorities had largely ceased by the 1960s and 1970s, under the influence of the second wave of humanrights struggles. Yet ethnic and racial hierarchies persist in many societies, whether measured in terms of economic inequalities, political underrepresentation, social stigmatization, or cultural invisibility. Various forms of multiculturalism have been developed to help overcome these lingering inequalities. The focus in this report is on multiculturalism as it pertains to (permanently settled) immigrant groups,7 7 There was briefly in some European countries a form of â€Å"multiculturalism† that was not aimed at the inclusion of permanent immigrants, but rather at ensuring that temporary migrants would return to their country of origin. For example, mothertongue education in Germany was not initially introduced â€Å"as a minority right but in order to enable guest worker children to reintegrate in their countries of origin† (Karen Schonwalder, â€Å"Germany: Integration Policy and Pluralism in a Self-Conscious Country of Immigration,† in The Multiculturalism Backlash: European Discourses, Policies and Practices, eds. Steven Vertovec and Susanne Wessendorf [London: Routledge, 2010], 160). Needless to say, this sort of â€Å"returnist† multiculturalism — premised on the idea that migrants are foreigners who should return to their real home — has nothing to do with multiculturalism policies (MCPs) premised on the idea that immigrants belong in their host countries, and which aim to make immigrants 6 Multiculturalism: Success, Failure, and the Future MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE but it is worth noting that struggles for multicultural citizenship have also emerged in relation to historic minorities and indigenous peoples. 8 C. The Evolution of Multiculturalism Policies. The case of immigrant multiculturalism is just one aspect of a larger â€Å"ethnic revival† across the Western democracies,9 in which different types of minorities have struggled for new forms of multicultural citizenship that combine both antidiscrimination measures and positive forms of recognition and accommodation. Multicultural citizenship for immigrant groups clearly does not involve the same types of claims as for indigenous peoples or national minorities: immigrant groups do not typically seek land rights, territorial autonomy, or official language status. What then is the substance of multicultural citizenship in relation to immigrant groups? The Multiculturalism Policy Index is one attempt to measure the evolution of MCPs in a standardized format that enables comparative research. 10 The index takes the following eight policies as the most common or emblematic forms of immigrant MCPs:11 Constitutional, legislative, or parliamentary affirmation of multiculturalism, at the central and/ or regional and municipal levels The adoption of multiculturalism in school curricula The inclusion of ethnic representation/sensitivity in the mandate of public media or media licensing Exemptions from dress codes, either by statute or by court cases Allowing of dual citizenship The funding of ethnic group organizations to support cultural activities The funding of bilingual education or mother-tongue instruction Affirmative action for disadvantaged immigrant groups12 feel more at home where they are. The focus of this paper is on the latter type of multiculturalism, which is centrally concerned with constructing new relations of citizenship. 8 In relation to indigenous peoples, for example — such as the Maori in New Zealand, Aboriginal peoples in Canada and Australia, American Indians, the Sami in Scandinavia, and the Inuit of Greenland — new models of multicultural citizenship have emerged since the late 1960s that include policies such as land rights, self-government rights, recognition of customary laws, and guarantees of political consultation. And in relation to substate national groups — such as the Basques and Catalans in Spain, Flemish and Walloons in Belgium, Scots and Welsh in Britain, Quebecois in Canada, Germans in South Tyrol, Swedish in Finland — we see new models of multicultural citizenship that include policies such as federal or quasi-federal territorial autonomy; official language status, either in the region or nationally; and guarantees of representation in the central government or on constitutional courts. 9. Anthony Smith, The Ethnic Revival in the Modern World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981). 10 Keith Banting and I developed this index, first published in Keith Banting and Will Kymlicka, eds. , Multiculturalism and the Welfare State: Recognition and Redistribution in Contemporary Democracies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006). Many of the ideas discussed in this paper are the result of our collaboration. 11 As with all cross-national indices, there is a trade-off between standardization and sensitivity to local nuances. There is no universally accepted definition of multiculturalism policies and no hard and fast line that would sharply distinguish MCPs from closely related policy fields, such as antidiscrimination policies, citizenship policies, and integration policies. Different countries (or indeed different actors within a single country) are likely to draw this line in different places, and any list is therefore likely to be controversial. 12 For a fuller description of these policies, and the justification for including them in the Multiculturalism Policy Index, see the index website, www.queensu. ca/mcp. The site also includes our separate index of MCPs for indigenous peoples and for national minorities. Multiculturalism: Success, Failure, and the Future 7 MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE Other policies could be added (or subtracted) from the index, but there was a recognizable â€Å"multiculturalist turn† across Western democracies in the last few decades of the 20th century, and we can identify a range of public policies that are seen, by both critics and defenders, as emblematic of this turn. Each of the eight policy indicators listed above is intended to capture a policy dimension where liberaldemocratic states faced a choice about whether or not to take a multicultural turn and to develop more multicultural forms of citizenship in relation to immigrant groups. While multiculturalism for immigrant groups clearly differs in substance from that for indigenous peoples or national minorities, each policy has been defended as a means to overcome the legacies of earlier hierarchies and to help build fairer and more inclusive democratic societies. Therefore, multiculturalism is first and foremost about developing new models of democratic citizenship, grounded in human-rights ideals, to replace earlier uncivil and undemocratic relations of hierarchy and exclusion. Needless to say, this account of multiculturalism-as-citizenization differs dramatically from the 3S account of multiculturalism as the celebration of static cultural differences. Whereas the 3S account says that multiculturalism is about displaying and consuming differences in cuisine, clothing, and music, while neglecting issues of political and economic inequality, the citizenization account says that multiculturalism is precisely about constructing new civic and political relations to overcome the deeply entrenched inequalities that have persisted after the abolition of formal discrimination. It is important to determine which of these accounts more accurately describes the Western experience with multiculturalism. Before we can decide whether to celebrate or lament the fall of multiculturalism, we first need to make sure we know what multiculturalism has in fact been. The 3S account is misleading for three principal reasons. 13 Multiculturalism is first and foremost about developing new models of democratic citizenship, grounded in human-rights ideals. First, the claim that multiculturalism is solely or primarily about symbolic cultural politics depends on a misreading of the actual policies. Whether we look at indigenous peoples, national minorities, or immigrant groups, it is immediately apparent that MCPs combine economic, political, social, and cultural dimensions. While minorities are (rightly) concerned to contest the historic stigmatization of their cultures, immigrant multiculturalism also includes policies that are concerned with access to political power and economic opportunities — for example, policies of affirmative action, mechanisms of political consultation, funding for ethnic self-organization, and facilitated access to citizenship. In relation all three types of groups, MCPs combine cultural recognition, economic redistribution, and political participation. Second, the claim that multiculturalism ignores the importance of universal human rights is equally misplaced. On the contrary, as we’ve seen, multiculturalism is itself a human-rights-based movement, inspired and constrained by principles of human rights and liberal-democratic constitutionalism. Its goal is to challenge the traditional ethnic and racial hierarchies that have been discredited by the postwar human-rights revolution. Understood in this way, multiculturalism-as-citizenization offers no support for accommodating the illiberal cultural practices within minority groups that have also The same human-righ.